By the end of the 19th century, the Glasgow School of Art was one of the leading art academies in Europe, and after early success in the fine arts, the late 1890s saw Glasgow's reputation in architecture and the decorative arts reach an all-time high. At the very heart of this success was a talented young architect and designer, Charles Rennie Mackintosh, whose reputation was to quickly spread beyond his native city and who, more than a century later, is still regarded as the father of the "Glasgow style."

In 1884, Mackintosh was apprenticed to a local architect, John Hutchison, but in 1889, he transferred to the larger, more established city practice of Honeyman and Keppie. To complement his architectural apprenticeship, Mackintosh enrolled in evening classes at the Glasgow School of Art, where he pursued various drawing programs. Here, under the watchful eye of the headmaster, Francis Newbery, his talents flourished, and in the school's library, he was able to consult the latest architecture and design journals, becoming increasingly aware of his contemporaries both at home and abroad.

Mackintosh's projects for Honeyman and Keppie during the early 1890s displayed increased maturity. His design for the Glasgow Herald Building (1894) incorporated some cutting-edge technology, including a hydropneumatic lift and fire-resistant diatomite concrete flooring. Later at Martyrs' Public School (1895), despite a somewhat restricted brief, he was able to introduce some elaborate but controlled detailing, including the central roof trusses.

At a public lecture on architecture in 1893, Mackintosh argued that architects and designers should be given greater artistic freedom and independence. He himself began to experiment with a range of decorative forms, producing designs for furniture, metalwork, and the graphic arts (including highly stylized posters and watercolors), often in partnership with his friend and colleague at Honeyman and Keppie, Herbert MacNair, and two fellow students, Margaret and Frances MacDonald.

In 1896, Mackintosh gained his most substantial commission: to design a new building for the Glasgow School of Art. This was to be his masterwork. Significantly, the building was constructed in two distinct phases—1897-99 and 1907-09—because of a lack of money. Stylistically, the substantial delay in completion offered Mackintosh the opportunity to amend and fully integrate his original design (of 1896), which owed much to Scotland's earlier baronial tradition, with a second half to the building that looked very much to the 20th century through its use of materials and technology. Most dramatic of all the interiors was the new Library (completed in 1909), which was a complex space of timber posts and beams. Its construction owed much to traditional Japanese domestic interiors, but ultimately the building was an eclectic mix of styles and influences.

In Europe, the originality of Mackintosh's style was quickly appreciated, and in Germany, and particularly in Austria, he received acclaim and recognition for his designs. He entered an open competition to design "A House for an Art Lover," put forward in 1900 by a German design journal, Zeitschrift fur Innendekoration. Although he failed to win the competition, his architectural designs were judged to be of such a high standard that they were later reproduced as a portfolio of prints.

Back in Scotland at the Hill House (1904) in Helensburgh, the publisher Walter Blackie commissioned Mackintosh to design a substantial family home. In its appearance, it owed much to his House for an Art Lover designs and an earlier completed domestic commission, Windyhill (1900). Externally, the Hill House was notable for its simple and solid massed forms with little ornamentation, yet internally the rooms exuded light and space, and the use of color and decoration was carefully conceived.

Throughout his career, Mackintosh relied on just a handful of patrons and supporters. The Glasgow businesswoman Catherine Cranston proved to be one of his most influential, and her series of tearoom interiors (designed and furnished between 1896 and 1917) provided him with virtual freedom to experiment. Responsible for their "total design," Mackintosh provided the tearooms with furniture (including the dramatic high-back chairs), light fittings, wall decorations, and even the cutlery.

Despite success in Europe and the support of clients such as Blackie and Cranston, Mackintosh's work met with considerable indifference at home, and his career soon declined. Few private clients were sufficiently sympathetic to want his "total design" of house and interior. He entered the competition to design a cathedral (1902) for the city of Liverpool, but although his design showed a Gothic quality as requested, his entry was rejected, and his design for Scotland Street School (1904) in Glasgow was to be his last public commission.

By 1914, Mackintosh had despaired of ever receiving the level of recognition in Glasgow that he felt he deserved. He became increasingly obstinate and incapable of compromise, and it is known that this exerted unnecessary pressures on his colleagues. In an attempt to resurrect his career, Mackintosh resigned from the practice and with his wife, Margaret MacDonald, moved to London.

This was unfortunate timing, for with the onset of World War I, all building was severely restricted. Adventurous plans for a suite of artists' studios and a theater were never built. However, after making adjustments to the exterior of a mid-terraced house (1916) at 78 Derngate in Northampton, the client, W. J. Bassett-Lowke, commissioned Mackintosh to redecorate a number of the building's interiors, including the Guests' Bedroom (1919). These designs show him working in a bold new style of decoration and construction, using primary colors and geometric motifs. It was an output of extraordinary vitality and originality, but it went virtually unheeded.

PETER TROWLES

Sennott R.S. Encyclopedia of twentieth century architecture, Vol.2 (G-O).  Fitzroy Dearborn., 2005.